Impacts of LED spectral quality on leafy vegetables: Productivity closely linked to photosynthetic performance or associated with leaf traits?

Jie He, Lin Qin, Wah Soon Chow

Abstract


The success of growing vegetables indoors requires the most appropriate selection of lighting spectrum. This mini review discusses the impacts of LED spectral quality on different leafy vegetables with a focus on the studies of Chinese broccoli (Brassica alboglabra), ice plants (Mesembryanthem crystallinum) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Canasta). For each species, plants exposed to different spectral LED lights were all under the same light intensity and same photoperiod. Chinese broccoli grown under red(R):blue(B)-LED ratio of 84:16 (16B) had the highest light-saturated photosynthetic CO2 assimilation rate (Asat) and stomatal conductance (gs sat) compared to plants grown under other R:B-LED ratios. It was also shown that 16B is the most appropriate selection for Chinese broccoli to achieve the highest shoot productivity with a rapid leaf number and leaf area development. The highest concentrations of photosynthetic pigments, soluble and Rubisco protein on a leaf area basis were also observed in 16B plants. The results conclusively affirmed that the highest productivity of Chinese broccoli grown under 16B is closely linked to the highest photosynthetic performance on a leaf area basis. For ice plants grown under R:B-LED ratios of 90:10 (10B), they had the highest shoot biomass with a faster leaf development compared to plants grown under other RB-LED combinations. However, there were no differences in Asat, gs sat, photosynthetic pigments, soluble and Rubisco proteins on a leaf area basis. In the case of lettuce plants, it was a surprise to observe that plants grown under 0B and 20G (20% green (G)-LED and 80% R-LED) had the highest shoot biomass, and largest total leaf area and light interception area but the lowest net maximal photosynthetic rate on a leaf area basis, compared to other plants. The combined RB-LED enhanced other photosynthetic parameters while 0B and 20G conditions had inhibitory effects on maximum quantum efficiency of PS II with lower photosynthetic pigments, total soluble protein and Rubisco protein. These results suggest that impacts of LED light quality on productivity of lettuce (L. sativa L. cv. Canasta) is closely linked to leaf traits not associated with photosynthetic performance on a leaf area basis.
Keywords: leafy vegetable, leaf traits, LED spectral quality, photosynthetic performance, productivity
DOI: 10.25165/j.ijabe.20191206.5178

Citation: He J, Qin L, Chow W S. Impacts of LED spectral quality on leafy vegetables: Productivity closely linked to photosynthetic performance or associated with leaf traits? Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2019; 12(6): 16–25.

Keywords


leafy vegetable, leaf traits, LED spectral quality, photosynthetic performance, productivity

Full Text:

PDF

References


He J. Farming of vegetables in space-limited environment. COSMOS, 2015; 11: 21–36. doi: 10.1142/S0219607715500020

He J. Integrated vertical aeroponic farming system for vegetable production in space limited environments. Acta Horticultura, 2017; 1176: 25–35. doi: 10.17660/ ActaHortic.2017.1176.5

Touliatos D, Dodd I C, McAinsh M. Vertical farming increases lettuce yield per unit area compared to conventional horizontal hydroponics. Food and Energy Security, 2016; 6: 184–191. doi: 10.1002/fes3.83

Kozai T, Niu G. In: Kozai T, Niu G, Takagaki M (Ed.), Challenges for the next-generation PFAL. Plant factory: An indoor vertical farming system for efficient quality food production. Academic Press Elsevier: Amsterdam. The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 387–393.

Heo J, Lee C, Chakrabarty D, Paek K. Growth responses of marigold and salvia bedding plants as affected by monochromic or mixture radiation provided by a Light-Emitting Diode (LED). Plant Growth Regulation, 2002; 38: 225–230. doi: 10.1023/A:1021523832488.

Loconsole D, Cocetta G, Santoro P, Ferrante A. Optimization of LED lighting and quality evaluation of romaine lettuce grown in an innovative indoor cultivation system. Sustainability; 2019; 11: 841. doi: 10.3390/su11030841

Trouwborst G, Oosterkamp J, Hogewoning S W, Harbinson J, Van Ieperen W. The responses of light interception, photosynthesis and fruit yield of cucumber to LED-lighting within the canopy. Physiologia Plantarum, 2010; 138: 289–300. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2009.01333.x

Olle M, Viršile A. The effects of light-emitting diode lighting on the greenhouse plant growth and quality. Agricultural and Food Science, 2013; 22: 223–234. doi: 10.23986/afsci.7897

Darko E, Heydarizadeh P, Schoefs B, Sabzalian M R. Photosynthesis under artificial light: the shift in primary and secondary metabolism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 2014; 369: 20130243. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0243

Agarwal A, Gupta S D. Impact of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and its potential on plant growth and development in controlled-environment plant production system. Current Biotechnology, 2016; 5(1): 28–43. doi: 10.2174/2211550104666151006001126

Benke K, Tomkins B. Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 2017; 13 (1): 13–26. doi: 10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054

Brown C S, Schuerger A C, Sager J C. Growth and photomorphogenesis of pepper plants under red light-emitting diodes with supplemental blue or far-red lighting. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 1995; 120: 803–813.

Schuerger A C, Brown C S, Stryjewski E C. Anatomical features of pepper plants (Capsicum annuum L.) grown under red light-emitting diodes supplemented with blue or far-red light. Annuals of Botany (London), 1997; 79: 273–282. doi: 10.1006/anbo.1996.0341

Goins G D, Yorio N C, Sanwo M M, Brown C S. Photomorphogenesis, photosynthesis, and seed yield of wheat plants grown under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with and without supplemental blue lighting. Journal of Experimental Botany, 1997; 48: 1407–1413. doi: 10.1093/jxb/48.7.1407

Yorio N D, Goins G D, Kagie H R, Wheeler R M, Sager J C. Improving spinach, radish and lettuce growth under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with blue light supplementation. HortScience, 2001; 36: 380–383. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI. 36.2.380

Choong T W, He J, Qin L, Lee S K. Quality of supplementary LED lighting effects on growth and photosynthesis of two different Lactuca recombinant inbred lines (RILs) grown in a tropical greenhouse. Photosynthetica, 2018; 56: 1278–1286. doi: 10.1007/s11099-018-0828-2.

Nhut D T, Takamura, T, Watanabe H, Okamoto K, Tanaka M. Responses of strawberry plantlets cultured in vitro under super bright red and blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Plant Cell Tissue Organ Culture, 2003; 73: 43–52. doi: 10.1023/A:1022638508007

Shengxin C, Chunxia L, Xuyang Y, Song C, Xuelei J, Xiaoying L, et al. Morphological, photosynthetic, and physiological responses of rapeseed leaf to different combinations of red and blue lights at the rosette stage. Frontier in Plant Science, 2016; 7: 1144. doi: 10.3389/fpls. 2016.01144

Hernández R, Kubota C. Physiological responses of cucumber seedlings under different blue and red photon flux ratios using LEDs. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 2016; 121: 66–74. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot. 2015.04.001

He J, Qin L, Chong E L C, Choong T W, Lee S K. Plant growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum grown aeroponically under different blue- and red-LEDs. Frontier in Plant Science, 2017; 8: 361. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00361

He J, Qin L, Liu Y, Choong T W. Photosynthetic capacities and productivity of indoor hydroponically grown Brassica alboglabra Bailey under different light sources. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2015; 6(4): 228–239. doi: 10.4236/ajps.2015.64060

He J, Qin L, Teo L J L, Choong T W. Nitrate accumulation, productivity and photosynthesis of Brassica alboglabra grown under low light with supplemental LED lighting in the tropical greenhouse. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 2019; 42(15): 1740-1749. doi: 0.1080/01904167.2019.1643367

Li H, Tang C, Xu Z. The effects of different light qualities on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) plantlet growth and morphogenesis. Scientia Horticulturae, 2013; 150: 117–124. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2012.10.009

Kim H H, Goins G D, Wheeler R M, Sager J C. Green-light supplementation for enhanced lettuce growth under red- and blue-light-emitting diodes. HortScience, 2004; 39: 1617–1622. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.39.7.1617

Folta K M, Koss L L, McMorrow R, Kim H-H, Kenitz J D, Wheeler R, et al. Design and fabrication of adjustable red-green-blue LED light arrays for plant research. BMC Plant Biology, 2005; 5: 17. doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-5-17

Folta K M, Maruhnich S A. Green light: a signal to slow down or stop. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2007; 58: 3099–3111. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erm130

Terashima I, Fujita T, Inoue T, Chow W S, Oguchi R. Green light drives leaf photosynthesis more efficiently than red light in strong white: Revisiting the enigmatic question of why leaves are green. Plant Cell Physiology, 2009; 50, 684–697. doi: 10.1093/pcp/pcp034.

Liu H, Fu Y, Wang M, Liu H. Green light enhances growth, photosynthetic pigments and CO2 assimilation efficiency of lettuce as revealed by ‘knock-out’ of the 480–560 nm spectral waveband. Photosynthetica, 2017; 55(1): 144–152.

Liu H, Fu Y, Hu D, Yu J, Liu H. Effect of green, yellow and purple radiation on biomass, photosynthesis, morphology and soluble sugar content of leafy lettuce via spectral wavebands “knock out”. Scientia Horticulture, 2018; 236: 10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.03.027

Johkan M, Shoji K, Goto F, Hahida S, Yoshihara T. Effect of green light wavelength and intensity on photomorphogenesis and photosynthesis in Lactuca sativa. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 2012; 75: 128–133. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2011. 08.010

Wu Q, Su N, Shen W, Cui J. Analyzing photosynthetic activity and growth of Solanum lycopersicum seedlings exposed to different light qualities. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2014; 36: 1411–1420. doi: 10.1007/s11738-014-1519-7

Sabzalian M, Heydarizadeh P, Zahedi M, Boroomand A, Agharokh M, Sahba M, `Schoefs B. High performance of vegetables, flowers, and medicinal plants in a red-blue LED incubator for indoor plant production. Agronomy Sustainable Development, 2014; 34(14): 879–886. doi: 10.1007/s13593-014-0209-6

Zheng L, Van Labeke M C. Chrysanthemum morphology, photosynthetic efficiency and antioxidant capacity are differentially modified by light quality. Journal of Plant Physiology, 2017; 213: 66–74. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph. 2017.03.005

Novičkovas A, Brazaitytė A, Duchovskis P, Jankauskienė J, Samuolienė G, Virsilė A, Sirtautas R, Bliznikas Z, Zukauskas A. Solid-state lamps (LEDS) for the short-wavelength supplementary lighting in greenhouse: Experimental results with cucumber. Acta Horticulturae, 2012; 927:

–730. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.927.90

Nanya K, Ishigami Y, Hikosaka S, Goto E. Effects of blue and red light on stem elongation and flowering of tomato seedlings. Acta Horticulturae, 2012; 956: 261–266. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.956.29

Wang J, Lu W, Tong Y, Yang Q, Leaf morphology, photosynthetic performance, chlorophyll fluorescence, stomatal development of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) exposed to different ratios of red light to blue light. Frontier in Plant Science, 2016; 7: 250. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00250

Wang S, Wang X, Shi X, Wang B, Liu F. Red and blue lights significantly affect photosynthetic properties and ultrastructure of mesophyll cells in senescing grape Leaves. Horticultural Plant Journal, 2016; 2 (2): 82–90. doi: 10.1016/j.hpj.2016.03.001

Mizuno T, Amaki W, Watanabe H. Effects of Monochromatic Light irradiation by LED on the growth anthocyanin contents in leaves of cabbage seedlings. Acta Horticulturae, 2011; 907: 179–184. dio: 10.17660/ActaHortic. 2011.907.25

Hogewoning S, Trouworst G, Maljaars H, Poorter H, van leperen W, Harbinson J. Blue light dose-response of leaf photosynthesis, morphology, and chemical composition of cucumis sativus grown under different combinations of red and blue light. Journal Experimental Botany, 2010; 61: 3107–3117. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erq132

Muneer, S., Kim E J, Park J S, and Lee J H (2014). Influence of green, red and blue light emitting diodes on multiprotein complex proteins and photosynthetic activity under different light intensities in lettuce leaves (Lactuca sativa L.). International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2014; 15: 4657–4670. doi: 10.3390/ijms15034657

Bukhov N G, Drozdova I S, Bondar V V. Light response curves of photosynthesis in leaves of sun-type and shade-type plants grown in blue or red light. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 1995; 30: 39–41. doi: 10.1016/1011-1344(95)07124-K

Dougher T A, Bugbee B. Evidence for yellow light suppression of lettuce growth. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 2001; 73: 208–212. doi: 10.1562/ 0031-86552001073<0208:EFYLSO<2.0.CO;2

Klein R M. Effect of green light on biological systems. Biological Reviews Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1992; 67: 199–284. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1992.tb01019.x

He J, Lee S K. Impact of climate change on food security and proposed solutions for the modern city. Acta Horticulturae, 2012; 1004: 41–52. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2013.1004.3

He J, Lim L I, Qin L. Growth irradiance effects on productivity, photosynthesis, nitrate accumulation and assimilation of aeroponically grown Brassica alboglabra. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 2015; 38(7), 1022–1035. doi: 10.1080/01904167.2014.963118

He J, Kong S M, Choong T W, Qin L. Productivity and photosynthetic characteristics of heat-resistant and heat-sensitive recombinant inbred lines of Lactuca sativa in response to different durations of LED lighting. Acta Horticultura, 2016; 1134: 187–194. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2016.1134.25

He J, Qin L, Alahakoon P K D T, Chua B L J, Choong T W, Lee S K. LED-integrated vertical aeroponic farming system for vegetable poduction in Singapore. Acta Horticulturae, 2018. doi: 10.17660/ ActaHortic.2018.1227.76

Yorio N C, Wheeler R M, Goins G D, Sanwo-Lewandowski M M, Mackowiak C L, Brown C S, et al. Blue light requirements for crop plants used in biore generative life support systems. Life Support Biosphere Science, 1998; 5: 119–128.

Wang X Y, Xu X M, Cui J. The importance of blue light for leaf area expansion, development of photosynthetic apparatus, and chloroplast ultrastructure of Cucumis sativus grown under weak light. Photosynthetica, 2015; 53: 213–222. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11099-015-0083-8

Izzoa G , Arenab C, De Miccoa V, Capozzia F, Aronne G. Light quality shapes morpho-functional traits and pigment content of green and red leaf cultivars of Atriplex hortensis L. Scientia Horticulturae, 2019; 246: 942–950. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta. 2018.11.076

Miao Y, Chen Q, Qu M, Gao L, Hou L. Blue light alleviates ‘red light syndrome’ by regulating chloroplast ultrastructure, photosynthetic traits and nutrient accumulation in cucumber plan, Scientia Horticulturae, 2019; 257: 108680. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2019.108680

Chen Y, Zhou B, Li J, Tang H, Tang J, Yang Z. Formation and change of chloroplast-located plant metabolites in response to light conditions. International Journal of Molecular ience 2018; 19: 1–17. doi: 10.3390/ijms19030654.

Savvides A, Fanourakis D, van Ieperen W. Co-ordination of hydraulic

and stomatal conductances across light qualities in cucumber leaves. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2012; 63:1135–1143. doi: 0.1093/jxb/err348

Pennisi G, Blasioli S, Cellini A, Maia L, Crepaldi A, Braschi I, Spinelli F, Nicola S, Fernandez JA, Stanghellini C, Marcelis LFM, Orsini F and Gianquinto G. Unraveling the role of red:blue LED lights on resource use efficiency and nutritional properties of indoor grown sweet basil. Frontier Plant Science, 2019; 10:305. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00305

Goins C D, Yorio N C, Sanwo-Lewandowski M M, Brown C S. “Life cycle experiments with Arabidopsis under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs),” Life support and biosphere science, 1998; 5: 143–149.

Rabideau G S, French C S, Holt A S. The absorption and reflection spectra of leaves, chloroplast suspensions, and chloroplastfragments as measured in an ulbricht sphere. American Journal of Botany, 1946; 33: 769-777. doi: 10.1002/ j.1537-2197.1946.tb12939.x

Bula R J, Morrow R C, Tibbitts T W, Barta D J, Ignatius R W, Martin T S. Light emitting diodes as a radiation source for plants. HortScience, 1991; 26(2): 203–205.

Sager J C, McFarlane J C. Radiation, In: Langhans R W, Tibbitts T W (Ed.), Plant Growth Chamber Handbook. Iowa State Univ. Press: North Central Region Research Publication No.340, Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station Special Report No. 99, Ames, IA, 1997; pp.1–29.

López-Juez E, Hughes M J G. Effect of blue light and red light on the control of chloroplast acclimation of light-grown pea leaves to increased fluence rate. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 1995; 61: 106-111. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097. 1995.tb09250.x

Goto E. Effects of light quality on growth of crop plants under artificial lighting. Environment Control in Biology, 2003; 41: 121–132. doi: 10.2525/ecb1963.41.121

Furuyama S, Y, Ishigami Y, Hikosaka S, Goto E. Effects of blue/red ratio and light intensity on photomorphogenesis and photosynthesis of red leaf lettuce. Acta Horticulturae, 2014; 1037: 317–322. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2014.1037.38

Johkan M, Shoji K, Goto F, Hashida S, Yoshihara T. Blue light-emitting diode light irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce. HortScience, 2010; 45: 1809–1814. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.45. 12.1809

Leong T Y, Anderson J M. Effect of light quality on the composition and function of thylakoid membranes in Atriplex triangularis. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta , 1984; 766: 533–541. doi:10.1016/0005-2728(84)90111-7

Senger H, Bauer B. The influence of light quality on adaptation and function of the photosynthetic apparatus. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology, 1987; 45: 939–946. doi: 10.1111/ j.1751-1097.1987.tb07905.x

Evans J R. Acclimation by the thylakoid membranes to growth irradiance and the partitioning of nitrogen between soluble and thylakoid proteins. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1988; 15: 93–106.

Demmig-Adams B, Adams W W III. Xanthophyll cycle and light stress in nature: uniform response to excess direct sunlight among higher plant species. Planta, 1996; 198: 460–470. doi: 10.1007/BF00620064.

Tallman G, Zhu J X, Mawson BT, Amodeo G, Nouhi Z, Levy K, Zeiger E. Induction of CAM in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum abolishes the stomatal response to blue light and light-dependent zeaxanthin formation in guard cell chloroplasts. Plant Cell Physiology, 1997; 38: 236–242. http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/3/236.full.pdf+html.

Dreuw A, Fleming G R, Head-Gordon M. Role of electron-transfer quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence by carotenoids in non-photochemical quenching of green plants. Biochemical Society Transactions, 2005; 33:858–862. doi: 10.1042/BST0330858

Hemming S. Use of natural and artificial light in horticulture – Interaction of plant and technology. Acta Horticultura, 2001; 907: 25–36. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.907.1

Joliot P, Johnson G. N. Regulation of cyclic and linear electron flow in higher plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2011; 108(32): 13317–13322. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1110189108

Heber U. Irrungen, Wirrungen? The Mehler reaction in relation to cyclic electron transport in C3 plants. Photosynthesis Research, 2002; 73: 223–231. doi:10.1023/A:1020459416987

Heber U, Gerst U, Krieger A, Neimanis S, Kobayashi Y. Coupled cyclic electron transport in intact chloroplasts and leaves of C3 plants: Does it exist? If so, what is its function? Photosynthesis Research, 1995; 46:

–275. doi: 10.1007/ BF00020440

Miyake C. Alternative electron flows (water-water cycle and cyclic electron flow around PSI) in photosynthesis: molecular mechanisms and physiological functions. Plant Cell Physiology, 2010; 51: 1951–1963. doi: 10.1093/pcp/ pcq173

Sun Y, Genga Q, Dua Y, Yang X, Zhai H. Induction of cyclic electron flow around photosystem I during heat stress in grape leaves. Plant Science, 2017; 256: 65–71. doi: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.12.004

Huang W, Yang Y-J, Zhang S-B, Liu T. Cyclic Electron Flow around Photosystem I Promotes ATP Synthesis Possibly Helping the Rapid Repair of Photodamaged Photosystem II at Low Light. Frontier Plant Science, 2018; 9: 239. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00239

Shikanai T. Cyclic electron transport around photosystem I: genetic approaches. Annual. Review Plant Biology, 2007; 58: 199–217. doi: 10.1146/annurev. arplant.58.091406.110525

Takahashi S, Badger M R. Photoprotection in plants: a new light on photosystem II damage. Trends Plant Science, 2011; 16: 53–60. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2010.10.001

Long S P, Zhu X-G, Naidu S L, Ort D R. Can improvement in photosynthesis increase crop yields? Plant Cell and Environment, 2006; 29: 315–330. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01493.x

Raines C A. Increasing photosynthetic carbon assimilation in C3 plants to improve crop yield: current and future strategies. Plant Physiology, 2011; 155: 36–42. doi: 10.1104/pp.110.168559

Gifford R M, Thorne J H, Hitz W D, Giaquinta R T. Crop productivity and photoassimilate partitioning. Science, 1984; 24: 801–808. doi: 10.1126/science.225.4664.801

Koester R P, Skoneczka J A, Cary T R, Diers B W, Ainsworth E A. Historical gains in soybean (Glycine max Merr.) seed yield are driven by linear increases in light interception, energy conversion, and partitioning efficiencies. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2014; 65: 3311–3321. doi: 10.1093/jxb/eru187

Weraduwage S M, Chen J, Anozie F C, Morales A, Weise S E, Sharkey T D. The relationship between leaf area growth and biomass accumulation in Arabidopsis thaliana. Frontier Plant Science, 2015; 6: 167. doi: 10.3389/fpls. 2015.00167

Křístková E, Doležalová I, Lebeda A, Vinter V, Novotná A. Description of morphological characters of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) genetic resources. Horticultural Science (Prague), 2008; 35(3): 113–129.

Evans, J R, Loreto F. Acquisition and diffusion of CO2 in higher plant leaves. In: Leegood R C, Sharkey T D, von Caemmerer S (Ed.), Photosynthesis: Physiology and Metabolism, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000; pp.321–351. doi: 10.1007/0-306-48137-5_14

Niinemets U. Components of leaf dry mass per area - thickness and density - alter leaf photosynthetic capacity in reverse directions in woody plants. New Phytologist, 1999; 144: 35–47. doi: 10.1046/ j.1469-8137.1999.00466.x.

Roni M Z K, Islam I D Md S, Shimasaki K. Response of eustoma leaf phenotype and photosynthetic performance to led light quality. Horticulturae 2017; 3: 50; doi: 10.3390/horticulturae3040050

Mathan J, Bhattacharya J, Ranjan A. Enhancing crop yield by optimizing plant developmental features. Development; 2016: 143: 3283-3294. doi: 10.1242/dev.134072

Horton P. Prospects for crop improvement through the genetic manipulation of photosynthesis: morphological and biochemical aspects of light capture. Journal of Experimental Botany, 2000; 51: 475–485. doi: 10.1093/jexbot/51.suppl_1.475

Peng J, Richards D E, Hartley N M, Murphy G P, Devos K M, Flintham J E, Beales J, Fish L J, Worland A J, Pelica F, et al. ‘Green revolution’ genes encode mutant gibberellin response modulators. Nature, 2000; 400: 256–261. doi: 10.1038/22307

Zhang T, Shi Y, Wang Y, Liu Y, Zhao W, Piao F, Sun Z. The effect of different spectral LED lights on the phenotypic and physiological characteristics of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) at picking stage. Journal Biochemistry Biotechnology, 2017; 1: 14–19. doi: 10.35841/ biochemistry-biotechnology.1.1.14-19

Rahaman M M, Chen D, Gillani Z, Klukas C, Chen M. Advanced phenotyping and phenotype data analysis for the study of plant growth and development. Front. Plant Sci., 2015; 6: 619. doi: 10.3389/ fpls.2015.00619

Kozai K. Smart Plant Factory: The next generation indoor vertical farms. Springer, 2018.




Copyright (c) 2019 International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering

Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

2023-2026 Copyright IJABE Editing and Publishing Office